**Procedure** Subjects will be seated in a private lab space one at a time and seated in front of a desktop computer, where all the measures will be administered. Subjects will then complete the measures in the following order: 1. Virtual SILCton (Weisberg et al., 2014) tasks: - 1a. Route learning (4 paths in total) - 1b. Onsite pointing - 1c. Map reconstruction 2. Perspective Taking/Spatial Orientation Test (SOT, Hegarty et al., 2004) 3. Self-Report Measures, administered in Qualtrics: - 3a. In random order: - GPS Reliance (He & Hegarty, 2020) and GPS Usage (Topete et al., in prep) to be administered together, with the reliance scale coming first - Santa Barbara Sense of Direction (SBSOD, Hegarty et al., 2002) - Spatial Anxiety (He & Hegarty, 2020) - Exploration Tendency (He & Hegarty, 2020) - Navigational Growth Mindset (He & Hegarty, 2020) - Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS, Brown & Ryan, 2003) - 3b. Attention Check - 3c. Captcha Verification & Seriousness Check - 3d. Demographics (age, gender, and ethnicity) After completing the measures, participants will be thanked, given a short debriefing of the study, and will either be given course credit or an e-gift card in exchange for their time. **Measures** Our main behavioral measure DVs are the Virtual SILCton (Weisberg et al., 2014) and the Spatial Orientation Test (Hegarty et al., 2004). ***Virtual SILCton (Weisberg et al., 2014):*** Virtual SILCton is an assessment of navigation ability administered via a desktop computer, keyboard, and mouse. The objective of this task is for subjects to memorize the locations and names of 8 different buildings throughout the environment, and this is achieved by following a series of guided routes. The first 2 routes are completely separate from each other, where subjects initially learn the 8 building names and locations (4 new buildings per route). Buildings of importance are denoted by a floating gem encountered along the routes. The remaining 2 routes are connecting routes, where the buildings from the 2 separate routes are connected together. Subjects navigate through the environment by walking with either arrow keys or corresponding WASD keys on a keyboard, and look around using a mouse. They must follow the routes via red arrows, and invisible barriers keep them bound to those routes only. Each route is traveled from the starting to the finish point, then from the finish point back to the starting point to complete each guided path. The task is not timed, and the subject can take as long as they need to complete the learning phase. After completing the route learning phase, subjects are directed to an onsite pointing task. In this task, they are teleported in front of a building previously learned within the environment. From there, they use their mouse to position a crosshair and determine the locations of the remaining buildings learned, with the target building indicated on top of the screen. When the subject has determined the location of a building (assuming a straight line between the starting and target building), they click the left button on the mouse to record the projected angular position of the target. This is done for all buildings learned, for a total of 56 trials. The subjects, once completed the onsite pointing task, are directed to a map reconstruction task. In this task, they are given an empty environment box and instructed to use their mouse to drag-and-drop the 8 buildings previously learned into their correct places within the environment, assuming an aerial perspective. They can hover their mouse over each of the buildings to be given a few context clues, including its name and an image of it during the learning phase. Subjects are not timed on this task. For the onsite pointing task, absolute angular error between the building’s actual direction and the subject’s estimated direction is measured as the dependent variable for averaged within-route (buildings along the same initial learning routes) and between-route (buildings that were along different initial learning routes) trials separately. Each subject has 24 within-route trials and 32 between-route trials. For the map reconstruction task, a bidimensional regression is conducted (Friedman & Kohler, 2003) to determine the similarity between the subject’s perceived XY coordinates of the 8 buildings in the environment and their actual XY coordinates. ***Perspective Taking/Spatial Orientation Test (Hegarty et al., 2004):*** The Spatial Orientation Test is an assessment of perspective taking ability (a measure of small-scale spatial ability in which participants imagine different perspectives or orientations in space), administered via a desktop computer, keyboard, and mouse. Participants read: This is a test of your ability to imagine different perspectives or orientations in space. On each of the following pages you will see a picture of an array of objects and an “arrow circle” with a question about the direction between some of the objects. For the question on each page, you should imagine that you are standing at one object in the array (which will be named in the center of the circle) and facing another object, named at the top of the circle. Your task is to draw an arrow from the center object showing the direction to a third object from this facing orientation. Look at the sample item on the next page. In this item you are asked to imagine that you are standing at the flower, which is named in the center of the circle, and facing the tree, which is named at the top of the circle. Your task is to draw an arrow pointing to the cat. In the sample item this arrow has been drawn for you. In the test items, your task is to draw this arrow. Can you see that if you were at the flower facing the tree, the cat would be in this direction? Please ask the experimenter now if you have any questions about what you are required to do. There are 12 items in this test, one on each page. For each item, the array of objects is shown at the top of the page and the arrow circle is shown at the botom. Please do not pick up or turn the test booklet, and do not make any marks on the maps. Try to mark the correct directions but do not spend too much time on any one question. You will have 5 minutes for this test. As this task is computerized, participants will indicate their answers by clicking and dragging a line in the arrow circle with the mouse. The 12 items are in a set order, with only one item at a time. The array of objects stays constant across all questions, and is displayed with each item/arrow circle. To move to the next item after indicating a response, participants will click the "Enter" button on their keyboard. Participants are timed for 5 minutes on the task, and will be redirected to the end of the task if they do not complete the items in the given timeframe. For this task, angular error between the object's actual direction and the subject's estimated direction in measured as the dependent variable, and averaged across all trials. If a subject does not complete an item due to timing out or a lack of response, the item is assumed to have an angular error of 90 degrees (i.e. chance error). ***GPS Usage (Topete et al., in prep)*** Participants read: Please consider the following navigation scenarios. For each scenario, you will be given a list of different ways GPS can be used to navigate an area (descriptions below). Please mark how often you use each function for each scenario (Never, Sometimes, Often/Always). Different ways of using GPS: Turn-by-turn navigation: Following the GPS’ instructions for the entire route (for example, every turn given). Route planning: Using GPS to plan your route, at home, before you start your journey. Time/Traffic estimates: Using GPS to know how long it will take to reach your destination (either for your own purposes or someone else’s, e.g. sending a pin), and/or to know if traffic/congestion is going to affect your route. Finding a specific service: You are using the GPS to find a service, such as the nearest gas station, convenience store, coffee shop, etc. on your way to your destination.” [all items in a fixed order on an unnumbered 3-pt scale from: Never, Sometimes, Often/Always for each usage: Turn-by-turn navigation, route planning, Time/traffic estimates, Finding a specific service (e.g. a gas station) along the way] Navigating from your current residence to school and/or work, assuming the place(s) is/are 0-15 minutes away. Navigating from your current residence to school and/or work, assuming the place(s) is/are more than 15 minutes away. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.) assuming you have never traveled to this place before. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.) that you have been to no more than 5 times before. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.) that you have been to only 5-10 times before. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.) that you have been to more than 10 times before. Navigating from your current residence to visit the home of a friend or family member in another city or town (that you visit no more than a couple of times a year), assuming this city is at least 3 hours away from you. Navigating from your current residence to a hotel/Airbnb in a city or town that you have never visited before, assuming this city is at least 3 hours away from you. Scores can be averaged by functionality across scenarios, depending on the nature of the analyses (e.g., novel vs. familiar routes, close vs. distant, general usage, etc.). ***Santa Barbara Sense of Direction (SBSOD; Hegarty, et al., 2002).*** Participants read: For the following task, please answer each question as it pertains to yourself normally, that is, not in the context of this experiment. This questionnaire consists of several statements about your spatial and navigational abilities, preferences, and experiences. After each statement, you should select a number to indicate your level of agreement with the statement. Choose "1" if you strongly agree that the statement applies to you, "7" if you strongly disagree, or some number in between if your agreement is intermediate. Choose "4" if you neither agree nor disagree.” [all items on numbered 1-7 scale with 1 labeled strongly agree and 7 labeled Strongly Disagree] I am very good at giving directions. I have a poor memory for where I left things. I am very good at judging distances. My "sense of direction" is very good. I tend to think of my environment in terms of cardinal directions (N, S, E, W). I very easily get lost in a new city. I enjoy reading maps. I have trouble understanding directions. I am very good at reading maps. I don't remember routes very well while riding as a passenger in a car. I don't enjoy giving directions. It's not important to me to know where I am. I usually let someone else do the navigational planning for long trips. I can usually remember a new route after I have traveled it only once. I don't have a very good "mental map" of my environment. Scores are the average of all items. ***Spatial Anxiety (following He & Hegarty, 2020, adapted from Lawton, 1994 & Lytons, et al., 2018):*** Participants read Please rate your level of anxiety on a 5-point scale in the following scenarios. [all items in random order, scale points unnumbered A great deal = 5, A lot = 4, A moderate amount = 3, A little = 2, None at all = 1] Do you feel anxious when: Leaving a store that you have been to for the first time and deciding way to turn to get to a destination. Do you feel anxious when: Finding your way out of a complex arrangement of offices that you have visited for the first time. Do you feel anxious when: Pointing in the direction of a place outside that someone wants to get to and has asked you for directions when you are in a windowless room. Do you feel anxious when: Locating your car in a very large parking lot or parking garage. Do you feel anxious when: Trying a new route that you think will be a shortcut without the benefits of a map. Do you feel anxious when: Finding your way back to a familiar area after realizing you have made a wrong turn and become lost while traveling. Do you feel anxious when: Finding your way around in an unfamiliar mall. Do you feel anxious when: Finding your way to an appointment in an area if a city or town with which you are not familiar Do you feel anxious when: Finding your way back to your hotel after becoming lost in a new city. Do you feel anxious when: Asked to follow directions to a location across town without the use of a map Do you feel anxious when: Trying to get somewhere you have never been to before in the middle of an unfamiliar city Do you feel anxious when: Asked to do the navigation planning for a long car trip. Do you feel anxious when: Memorizing routes and landmarks on a map for an upcoming exam. Scores are the average of all of the items. ***Exploration Tendency (following He & Hegarty, 2020):*** Participants read Using the scale below, please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements: [all questions in random order, on 7-point unnumbered scales from Strongly agree, Agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Somewhat disagree, Disagree, Strongly disagree] When I have a chance, I like to explore different routes to get to my destination. When I have a chance, I like to try a new route that I think will be a shortcut to my destination I prefer to follow my daily route or the way I have gone before to get to my destination. I prefer to plan and take a specific route to my destination instead of exploring a new way using my sense of direction. I prefer to try to find a detour rather than sitting in traffic, even if I’m not quite sure I can find a faster way. I frequently choose to try new routes when I travel. If I already know a route to get to my destination, I don't think it is important to find new routes in the environment. I don't like to take a new route unless I have a friend with a good sense of direction guiding me. Scores are an average of all items. ***Navigational Growth Mindset (following He & Hegarty, 2020)*** Participants read Navigation ability is the ability to maintain a sense of direction and location while moving about in the environment and ability to complete tasks like giving directions, judging distances between places, developing a mental map for a new environment, finding the quickest way to reach a place, and orienting in unfamiliar places.” Checking Question. "Based on this description, please mark which items belong to navigation ability: (a) Solving math problems; (b)Describing a pathway to someone; (c) Building or repairing something; (d) Orienting in unfamiliar places; (e) Feeling one’s emotions; (f) Paying attention during a lecture; (g) Engaging in a new sport; (h) Finding the quickest way to reach a place;" [correct answers are (b)(d)(h). Participants cannot advance to the task if they do not answer this checking question correctly] “Using the scale below, please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements.” [all questions in random order, on 7-point unnumbered scales from Strongly agree, Agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Somewhat disagree, Disagree, Strongly disagree. Negatively stated items will be scored reversely. A higher score indicates more growth mindsets in their navigation ability.] I have a certain amount of navigation ability, and I can’t really do much to change it. My navigation ability is something about me that I can’t change very much. To be honest, I can’t really change how good I am at tasks related to navigation ability. I can gradually get familiar with a new environment, but I can’t really change my basic navigation ability. No matter who I am, I can significantly change my navigation ability. I can always substantially change how good I am at navigating. No matter how much navigation ability I have, I can always change it quite a bit. I can change even my basic navigation ability considerably. ***Mindful Attention to Awareness Scale (MAAS, Brown & Ryan, 2003)*** Participants read Below is a collection of statements about your everyday experience. Using the scale below, please indicate how frequently or infrequently you currently have each experience. Please answer according to what really reflects your experience rather than what you think your experience should be. Please treat each item separately from every other item. [All questions are in a set order, on a 6-point, unnumbered scale from Almost always, Very frequently, Somewhat frequently, Somewhat infrequently, Very infrequently, Almost never] I could be experiencing some emotion and not be conscious of it until some time later. I break or spill things because of carelessness, not paying attention, or thinking of something else. I find it difficult to stay focused on what’s happening in the present. I tend to walk quickly to get where I’m going without paying attention to what I experience along the way. I tend not to notice feelings of physical tension or discomfort until they really grab my attention. I forget a person’s name almost as soon as I’ve been told it for the first time. It seems I am “running on automatic,” without much awareness of what I’m doing. I rush through activities without being really attentive to them. I get so focused on the goal I want to achieve that I lose touch with what I’m doing right now to get there. I do jobs or tasks automatically, without being aware of what I'm doing. I find myself listening to someone with one ear, doing something else at the same time. I drive places on ‘automatic pilot’ and then wonder why I went there. I find myself preoccupied with the future or the past. I find myself doing things without paying attention. I snack without being aware that I’m eating. Scores are an average of all the items. ***Attention Check*** Participants read Earlier in this survey, we asked you the following question: “Do you feel anxious when: Locating your car in a very large parking lot or parking garage.” What is your best guess of how you answered that question earlier? [open-ended response item, participants must type out their best guess for how they responded to this item] ***Captcha Verification and Seriousness Check*** Participants must check a Captcha verification box that ensures they are not a bot, and then read It would be very helpful if you could tell us at this point whether you have taken part seriously, so that we can use your answers for our scientific analysis, or whether you were just clicking through to take a look at the survey? You will still get credit no matter your answer. [Participants select either the response "I have just clicked through, please throw my data away" or "I have participated in this survey seriously"] ***Demographics*** Participants will finally respond to demographic questions asking their age (from a drop-down list of 18 to 90 or older), gender (male, female, other, decline to answer), and ethnicity (select all that apply: White or Caucasian, Black or African American, Hispanic or Latino, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and Other/please specify). **Participants** We will collect data from 60 students at UC Santa Barbara (30 males, 30 females). Aside from the equal distribution of male and female participants, there will be no exclusion criteria for this study. **References** Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822-848. He, C., & Hegarty, M. (2020). How anxiety and growth mindset are linked to navigation ability: Impacts of exploration and GPS use. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 71, 101475. Hegarty, M., Richardson, A. E., Montello, D. R., Lovelace, K., & Subbiah, I. (2002). Development of a self-report measure of environmental spatial ability. Intelligence, 30(5), 425–448. Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. (2004). A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities. Intelligence, 32, 175-191. Weisberg, S. M., Schinazi, V. R., Newcombe, N. S., Shipley, T. F., & Epstein, R. A. (2014). Variations in cognitive maps: understanding individual differences in navigation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(3), 669-682.