GPS Usage Scale (Topete et al., 2023) *Note: this was the iteration used for Study 1 in the original paper cited - the instrument has since been modified and the latest version will be available in a separate OSF pre-registration (e.g., for Study 2 of this citation) and/or the UC Santa Barbara Spatial Thinking website (https://hegarty-lab.psych.ucsb.edu/resources, TBA).* All participants respond to items on a 3-point scale, based on the frequency at which they use a certain function of GPS for various navigation scenarios. The responses were coded in the following way: - Never (0) - Sometimes (1) - Often/Always (2) Participants were given the following instructions and definitions for each function, and then were provided with 8 navigation scenarios (for a total of 40 items scored/responded to): "Please consider the following navigation scenarios. For each scenario, you will be given a list of different ways GPS can be used to navigate an area (descriptions below). Please mark how often you use **each function** for **each scenario** (Never, Sometimes, Often/Always). Different ways of using GPS: - **Turn-by-turn navigation:** Following the GPS' instructions for the **entire** route (for example, every turn given). - **Minimal navigation:** Relying on the GPS for a **small portion** of the route (e.g. for the last few steps of a route, such as when reaching your destination in a neighborhood or finding the specific building around the end). - **Route planning:** Using GPS to plan your route, at **home**, before you start your journey. - **Time/Traffic estimates**: Using GPS to know how long it will take to reach your destination (either for your own purposes or someone else’s, e.g. sending a pin), and/or to know if traffic/congestion is going to affect your route. - **Finding a specific service:** You are using the GPS to find a service, such as the nearest gas station, convenience store, coffee shop, etc. on your way to your destination." 1. Navigating from your current residence to school and/or work, assuming the place(s) is/are 0-15 minutes away. 2. Navigating from your current residence to school and/or work, assuming the place(s) is/are more than 15 minutes away. 3. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.), assuming you have never traveled to this place before. 4. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.) that you have been to no more than 5 times before. 5. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.) that you have been to only 5-10 times before. 6. Navigating from your current residence to a place in or near your hometown (e.g. a mall, salon, trail, etc.) that you have been to more than 10 times before. 7. Navigating from your current residence to visit the home of a friend or family member in another city or town (that you visit no more than a couple of times a year), assuming this city is at least 3 hours away from you. 8. Navigating from your current residence to a hotel/Airbnb in a city or town that you have never visited before, assuming this city is at least 3 hours away from you. Responses are averaged per function, where a higher score in one function indicates greater usage across all navigation scenarios. Additionally, items can be scored based on the type of navigation scenario (near vs. far away, unfamiliar vs. familiar or varying familiarity).