![enter image description here][1]
Directed acyclic graph depicting the effect of ENSO and PDO climate-oceanographic variability (exposures) on grasshopper density (outcome). As shown, GH<sub>obs</sub> signifies incomplete observation data collected during field survey as a function of "true" grasshoppers (GH<sub>true</sub>). Also shown are precipitation (P), temperature (T), drought (D), elevation (E), vegetation (V), soil (S) as functions of soil pH and organic carbon (OC), cultivated lands (Cult), and biotic factors related to intraspecific (Inter) and intraspecific (Intra) compettion, predation (Pred), and unobserved error (U) as a result of biased field sampling.
[1]: https://files.osf.io/v1/resources/dmyhf/providers/osfstorage/627d48266a659e1a70eec28b?mode=render